第３回　歴博国際シンポジウム（仁藤　敦史）

古代日本の世界観－天下・国・都城－

仁藤　敦史（国立歴史民俗博物館歴史研究部）

An Outlook on the World of Ancient Japan: Tenka, State, Capital

Atsushi NITO
Dept. of History, National Museum of Japanese History, JAPAN

Abstract
　　　This report uses written references to outline the topic of transitions in the world view in ancient Japan. Here I consider how Japan received the meanings of“all under heaven”(tenka) and“state”(kuni) brought from China.
　　　According to the name bestowed upon the Yamato nation from China,“Waobu”, it was subsumed to be under the ruling order (in the nation under heaven) in the Latter Han and Wei Dynasties. In the“Waobu no johyobun”(Waobu memorial to the emperor) (478), it is confirmed that there is a clear consciousness that the Chinese emperor's domain expanded due to the efforts of Waobu. Japan was part of the Song Dynasty's world order and control was maintained by making the Yamato nation's domestic order an extension of that Chinese order. However, the words of the inscription“Saji tenka”found on an iron sword unearthed from Inariyama Burial Mound in Saitama prefecture, and the inscription“ji tenka”found on an iron blade unearthed from the Eta Funayama burial mound in Kumamoto prefecture indicate a break away from the traditional Chinese“tenka”. It can be thought that the Yamato nation formed its own world view in the latter half of the fifth century.
　　　During the Zui Dynasty (593-628), Yamato reserved the right to take Mimana tribute from the Southern Korean peninsula. Yamato considered it self a great nation in regards to Paekche and Shilla and began to enforce a subordinate diplomacy. Furthermore, the Yamato nation called itself“the heavenly child of the land of the rising sun”, demanded equal relations with its neighbors and became“The small empire of the eastern barbarians”The enactment of the Taiho Decree (701) established the nation's name Japan and the ruler's title Emperor (tennou). Internally Japan was reorganized into various“states”(kuni) and Japan's unique“rule of heaven”was legally complete.

はじめに
　本報告は、日本古代における世界観の変遷の問題を文献を用いて概観することにある。ここでは、中国からもたらされた「天下」や「国」意識が、どのように我が国に受容されていったのか考えてみたい。

１　「天下」観の変遷
　倭国が中国から与えられた「漢委奴国王」(57)、「親魏倭王」(239)の称号によれば、倭国が後漢および魏王朝の支配秩序(天下)に包摂されていたことは明らかである。前者の「委(倭)奴国」の称号は、いまだ倭国全体を統率すべき王号とはなっていない。後者の「親魏倭王」の段階では、日本列島内の倭人・倭種全体を支配していたわけではないにしても、魏王朝が卑弥呼に対して理念的には倭国全体を統治すべき倭王の称号を与えている。
　五世紀にもいわゆる「倭の五王」による中国王朝への遣使が連続するが、「倭王武の上表文」(478)以降、その交通は中断する。その理由は、さまざまに考えられるが、倭国における国家意識の変化がその背景に考えられる。「倭王武の上表文」には、倭王の努力によって、中国皇帝の版図を拡大したとの意識が明確に確認される。宋王朝の世界秩序に参加し、倭国の国内秩序をその延長線上におくことによって、その支配を維持していたことになる。しかし、埼玉県稲荷山古墳出土鉄剣銘にみえる「左治天下」、江田船山古墳出土の鉄刀銘にみえる「治天下」の語は、中国固有の「天下」からの離脱を示している。倭国の領域をワカタケル大王が統治するということを前提に、小中華世界が構想されることとなる〔西嶋1985〕。五世紀後半において、倭国は独自の世界観を構想したと考えられる。
　『隋書』倭国伝には「新羅・百済は、皆倭を以て大国にして、珍物多しと為し」とあるように、推古朝(593～628)段階には、加羅地域からは「任那の調」を取る権限を留保し、百済・新羅に対して「大国」として自らを位置付け、従属外交を強制するようになる。さらに「日出づる処の天子、書を日没する処の天子に致す」という隋に対する対等の外交要求をおこなう「東夷の小帝国」となった。この背景には、仏教の世界観の導入により中国の天下を相対化する思想的根拠が与えられたことがある〔石上1987〕。
　やがて、大宝令(701)において、隣国＝唐、蕃国＝新羅、夷狄＝隼人・蝦夷、と位置付け、百済王への氏姓により、天皇の臣下とする観念的な意識は肥大するが、実態は空洞化しつつあった〔石母田1973〕。

２　国・王・都市
　古代中国では、都市は天を中心とする世界の小宇宙として位置付けられ、「天は円く、地は方形」という観念により、宗廟・社稷・市場を中心として四角く造られた。都市における東西南北の四隅の城壁の発達と「国」の語義とは密接な関係があった。四夷の記載に神経質なほど城郭についての記載があるのは、その有無が未開・文明の発達度を示す物差しとされたからである。春秋時代では「国」は、諸侯の居城を意味したが、やがて戦国時代になると領域国家を示す用語となっていく〔五井1992〕。
　こうした中国の事例を援用して『漢書』地理志には、「倭人」の国が百余国も存在したと記されている。さらに、『後漢書』東夷伝には、倭国というまとまりを記し、その中には奴国という国があるとも記し、重層的な「国」の序列を記している。これは漢代になると郡や県などを単位に「王国」や「侯国」などが設定されたため、皇帝の直轄地たる郡県に編成されない領域の大小の単位として「国」の字義が多様に用いられたことと関係する。「魏志倭人伝」の記載では、「国邑」のように単なる集落を意味するものから、「邪馬台国」のような諸国、さらには諸国を複数含む「倭国」のような「王」が支配する「王国」、魏王朝そのものを示す「国家」などに用いられた。女王国が宗主国として、中国との外交窓口となり、諸国はその付庸国として位置付けられた。理念的には「倭国」は「倭王」が支配すべき領域で、「倭人」「倭種」が居住する空間全体を示すが、実態としては、「倭国」の外には「狗奴国王」がおり、内部にも「伊都国王」が存在したように、倭国王が統一的に支配できる空間は限定されていた。
　倭国の王号は、当初中国王朝の承認が必要な倭王という用語を用いたが、独自の天下観に対応した大王へと変化する。以後、「某宮治天下大王」の語は倭王の自称として定着していく。宋の冊封国であることを前提としながらも、「毛人」「衆夷」という疑似民族集団の「国」を東西に設定し、朝鮮半島にも従属的な「国」を置いた。独自の地方組織として「国」を採用したのは、倭国独自の「天下」を構想したことを端的に示している。さらに朝鮮半島諸国に対して倭国を「大国」と認識させ、名目的な領有権の表象として「任那の調」を強制させた。さらに推古朝以降になると、仏教的世界観の導入により、仏教に帰依する国王として、中国皇帝とは対等であるとの主張が行われ、「日出ずる処」の天子という自覚から、「日本」という国号を採用し、新たに君主号として天皇号などを定めた。大宝令の施行により、国内を新たに再編した「国」に分割し、日本独自の「天下」を法的に完成させた。
　「天下」の中心に位置付けられるのは、天皇の住まう京(みやこ)であった。日本においては「みやこ」以外には都市を示す用語が成熟しなかったのは、都市が都城という天皇中心の政治的都市として機能し、みやこ・いなか・ひなという同心円的な構造をとる一極集中型であったことによる。

　参考文献
　石母田正　1973：『日本古代国家論』第一部、岩波書店．
　西嶋定生　1985：『日本歴史の国際環境』東京大学出版会．
　石上英一　1987：「古代東アジア地域と日本」（『日本の社会史』１、列島内外の交通と国家、岩波書店）．
　五井直弘　1992：「比較都市論」（『アジアのなかの日本史』Ⅰ－アジアと日本－、東京大学出版会）．

Record of the Han Dynasty (Treatise on Geography)

　　　The people of Wa are reported to be situated beyond the country of Lelang, and are divided into more than a hundred countries, but come to bring tributes on special occasions.

Record of the Late Han Dynasty (Gokansho) (volume 85, Legend of the Eastern barbarians) Yamato

　　　In the second year of Chugen during the reign of Emperor Kenmu (57) an emissary from the country of Wa came bearing tributes to call on the exalted Emperor of the Late Han dynasty. The emissary identified himself as Taifu. The country named Yamato is located the southernmost point of country of Wa. The exalted Emperor sent a seal and an undersash to the king of the country called Wa.
　　　In the first year of Eisho during the reign of Emperor An (107), Suisho the King of Wa presented 160 slaves and requested an audience with the emperor.

Tales of the Three Kingdoms Dynasty (Sangokushi) (volume 30, Tales of Wei 30, The tale of Ugan Sien-pi Eastern Barbarians)

　　　People from Wa

　　　Originally that country's ruler was a man. For seventy or eighty years the ruler was a king, but the country was in chaos and battles continued for many years. So finally a woman was chosen to be ruler and she was named Himiko. She was a medium who channelled the spirits of the gods and ruled the nation by consulting oracles. She gained the admiration and adoration of many people. She had a younger brother who assisted her in rituals. There were very few people who met directly with Himiko after she took her position as ruler. There were one thousand ladies-in-waiting to serve her. Just one man took care of her meals and came and went from the inner chambers as an intermediary with the outside world. The private chamber, the royal palace, the observation platform, and fortress were all splendidly constructed and were constantly protected by armed guards.
　　　To the east of the queen's country there was another country over one thousand ri (about 410 kilometers) across the sea. All the people were of the Yamato tribe. To the south of that was the nation of dwarfs. The people of that country were three or four shaku (90-120 centimeters) tall. The distance from the queen's country was over 4000 ri (1,640 kilometers). The country of Ra and the country of Kokushi were further to the south-east of there. It could be reached by boat in one year.
　　　When questioned about the geography of Wa, it appears that it is situated on islands in the sea, separated from the continent. Some of the countries of Wa are individual islands, and others are contiguous, with an overall perimeter of around 5,000 ri (2,050 kilometers).
　　　In the sixth month of the third year of Keisho during the reign of Emperor Ming of Wei, Himiko (239), Queen of Wa, sent a group including Taifu Natome to Taihogun, where they said they wished to meet the Emperor directly and pay tribute. Governer-general Lin Xia of the country of Daifang sent an official to take Natome and his group to the capital of Wei. In the twelfth month of that year, a decree was sent in reply to the Queen of Wa.
　　　“A decree to Queen Himiko of Wa in Wei. Your servant the Ambassador Natome and his assistant Tsushigori and their group sent by Governor-general Lin Xia of Daifang have arrived with their gift from you of four male slaves, six female slaves, 242 lengths of madara-weave cloth. The place where you live is a long distance away across the sea and mountains, but your wishing to send ambassadors to pay tribute despite those conditions shows your sincerity and we find that extremely praiseworthy. We hereby send you the gold seal and the medal with purple ribbon as the king of Wa in Wei.”

Record of Sung (Sou-sho) (Volume 97. Barbarians) The country of Wa

　　　The country of Wa is in the middle of the large sea to the south east of Koguryo. It's ruler has for many generations come to the court bearing tributes. In the second year of Eisho during the reign of Emperor Sung (421), the founding emperor handed down an imperial decree.
　　　“San, the ruler of the Wa, has sent tributes from 10,000 ri away. This show of sincerity from across such a great distance is praiseworthy. Therefore I bestow upon him an official post.”
　　　In the second year of Genka (425), San the king of Wa sent Sotatsu of Shiba as an envoy to the founding emperor. He presented a letter from the king and goods from Wa.
　　　San died and his younger brother Chin became the king of Wa. And he dispatched an envoy to proffer tributes. He was named the envoy and military commander, governor-general of military affairs in the six countries of Wa, Paekche, Shilla, Imna (Mimana), Shin and Kanbo, the Great General of Anto and King of Wa.. Chin presented an imperial letter and the official appointment to these positions was recognized. Then an imperial decree was announced appointing Chin as the General of Anto and King of Wa.
　　　The king asked for official recognition of four grades of generals, heisei, seiryo, kangun and kankoku. The emperor handed down a decree and approved them all.
　　　In the 20th year of Genka (443), Sei, the King of Wa, dispatched an envoy to present tributes. He was appointed as the General of Anto, King of Wa.
　　　In the 28th year of Genka (451), Sei, the King of Wa, was also given the position of the envoy and military commander, governor-general of military affairs in the seven countries of Wa, Paekche, Shilla, Imna (Mimana), Kara, Shin and Kanbo and the General of Anto was restored to its original form. Also the 23 men whose names were presented to the emperor were appointed as generals and district chiefs.
　　　Sei the king of Wa died and his successor Kou sent an envoy to offer tributes. In the sixth year of Taimei (462) the emperor handed down a decree which said.
　　　“Kou, the successor of the King of Wa values and respects the allegiance to China through the generations and has been a bulwark. He has accepted the Chinese influence and brought his country domestic peace. He has reverently sent tributes to the court. He has succeeded to the job of newly ruling that far land, so I bestow this appointment and deem him General of Anto, King of Wa.
　　　Kou died and his younger brother Bu became the King of Wa. He declared himself the envoy and military commander, governor-general of military affairs in the seven countries of Wa, Paekche, Shilla, Imna (Mimana), Kara, Shin and Kanbo and the Great General of Anto, King of Wa.
　　　In the second year of Shomei during the reign of Emperor Shun (478), the King of Wa sent an envoy bearing a written message which said:
　　　“Our country is in a remote place and is a bulwark for China. From long ago our ancestors of their own accord donned armor and helmets, crossed mountains and fields, forded rivers and journeyed by foot with no time to rest. From the east, fifty-five hairy barbarians overcame the country. From the west, sixty-six barbarians forced subjugation on the country. From across the sea, ninety-five from the north suppressed the country. The benevolence of the emperor has spread forth and the empire has expanded. For generations China has been revered and every year we have continued to call on the court without fail. I, Bu, am simple witted, but I will gratefully carry on the work of my ancestors. I will encourage and lead the people under my rule and make efforts to respectfully follow the Chinese emperor. We have prepared boats to take a route by way of Paekche.
　　　However, Koguryo is constantly attempting to annex Paekche. They rob the people at the borders of the country and kill them. And they have no intention of stopping. The route to the court in China is impassable due to Koguryo. The beautiful custom of dutifully serving China has been lost. Even if our ships set forth, at times they make it through and other times they do not. My departed father Sei was outraged that our enemy Koguryo would obstruct the trip to and from China. Armed with bows and arrows, 100,000 soldiers arose and gave a cry for justice. They fought Koguryo in great numbers. But things did not go according to plan and I lost my father Sei and my brother Kou. A victory that should have been achieved in one blow was, at the very end, unattainable. In mourning for my father and brother, I have not mobilized military forces. That is the reason no action has been taken. I have been resting my troops and have not yet defeated Koguryo.
　　　However, the mourning period is now at an end and so we are preparing weapons. The soldiers are training and I hope to fulfil the wishes of my father and brother. Brave and loyal soldiers, and civil and military officials will put forth all their strength. Even if unsheathed swords cross before my eyes, I will not fear them. If the benevolence of China's emperor will protect and support us, we will crush this strong enemy Koguryo and restore calm to the region and there will be no unfavorable comparisons to victories of the past. Although it is selfish of me to ask this, if you would appoint me the quasi-minister of state with a right to lay the foundation for military authority in Taihogun, and appoint the generals under my command as officials and court members, I will endeavor on the behalf of loyalty to China. I humbly request your advice on this matter.”

　　　Then Emperor Jun handed down an imperial decree and declared Bu the envoy and military commander, governor-general of military affairs in the six countries of Wa, Shilla, Imna (Mimana), Kara, Shin and Kanbo and the Great General of Anto, King of Wa.

Record of Zui (Zui-sho) (volume 81 The Eastern Barbarians)

　　　The Country of Wa
　　　In Shilla and Paekche it was thought that Wa was a great nation which possessed many rare things. Both countries respected and revered Wa and regularly sent enjoys.

　　　In the third year of Taigyo during the reign of Emperor Yo of Zui (607), Tarishihiko the King of Wa dispatched an envoy to bring a tribute.
　　　According to that envoy,
　　　“I have heard that the son of heaven who is like the bodhisattva who is in the four corners of the great ocean constantly promotes Buddhism. So the King of Wa has dispatched an envoy to worship with the Emperor. He would also like me to bring back several dozen priests so we may learn Buddhism from them.”
　　　In Wa's imperial literature this was written.
　　　“The emperor of the Land of the Rising Sun in the east sends this letter to the emperor of the Land of the Setting Sun to the west. Are you well?”
　　　Emperor Yo read this letter and was displeased. He remarked to Kourokei,“Although this is a letter from a barbarian, it does not adhere to formalities. This type of letter should not be sent again.”